




































136 
 

ETHNIC CHAUVINISM AND DEVELOPMENT IN NIGERIA: AN APPRAISAL. 

 

Emmanuel Adetokunbo OGUNDELE 

Department of Philosophy and Religious Studies, 

Augustine University, P.M.B. 1010, Ilara-Epe 106101, Lagos State 

Nigeria. 

emmanuel.ogundele@augustineuniversity.edu.ng 

 

 

ABSTRACT  
Ethnic chauvinism remains one of the most significant challenges confronting Nigeria's 

political system in the post-colonial era. The influence of ethnicity on Nigeria's political 

landscape, economic progress, and overall development cannot be over-emphasized. A viable 

political system for Nigeria must recognize and incorporate the essence of ethnic diversity and 

cultural differences. As a nation characterized by cultural heterogeneity, multi-ethnic groups, 

linguistic diversity, and religious plurality, Nigeria faces the complexity of harmonizing these 

differences. Each ethnic group operates with distinct ideologies that shape their perspectives 

on societal development. However, the structural development of Nigeria is hindered by the 

persistence of ethnic chauvinism, which impedes equitable access to developmental 

opportunities. This paper, employing philosophical appraisal and critical argumentation, 

examines the implications of ethnic chauvinism and proposes strategies for fostering 

sustainable national development in Nigeria. 

Keywords: Post-Colonial Period, Ethnicity, Development, Culture, heterogeneity. 

 

INTRODUCTION 

Nigeria, often referred to as the "Giant of Africa," is home to an estimated population of above 

235,208,544 individuals (Worldometers, 2025). The history of Nigeria’s development cannot 

be discussed without referencing the post-colonial period—a period characterized by political 

instability, military rule, and recurring themes of ethno-religious and ethno-regional patronage. 

Nigeria, as a nation-state, is richly diverse, encompassing over 250 ethnic groups and more 

than 500 indigenous languages (Oluwadele, Adediran & Olaogun, 2023, 62). However, this 

diversity has significantly influenced political, economic, and social decision-making, often 

hindering the country's progress. Ethnic allegiances have coloured decision-making processes, 

obstructing the implementation of policies that prioritize collective national development 

which has not been a force for good. Effective governance requires objectivity and inclusivity 

in political and administrative affairs, yet Nigeria has continually struggled with poor 

governance, corruption, and ethnically motivated patronage.  It is evident that “The Nigerian 

state is a victim of high-level corruption causing the retardation of national development and a 

ceaseless cycle of crisis arising from peoples’ discontent against the government” 

(Fagbadegbo, 2007, 32)—all major contributors to its underdevelopment. 

`Nigeria's classification as a less-developed nation stems from its failure to meet the 

fundamental criteria of a developed country. These criteria include territorial integration, 

national security, protection of citizens' rights and freedoms, popular franchise, and the orderly 

transfer of political power. Socio-political and economic stability is critical to achieving 

meaningful development, which, in turn, is essential for the growth and sustainability of any 

nation. Every society operates with an ideology that serves as the foundation for its 



                                                                     Aquino Journal of Philosophy, Vol 5 Issue 1, April 2025. 

                 ISSN: 2786-9792 

 

137 
 

development. To enhance meaningful progress, effective ideological strategies must be 

established and implemented. 

This paper examines the impact of ethnic chauvinism on Nigeria’s political and economic 

systems, identifying it as a root cause of the nation’s underdevelopment. Furthermore, it 

explores pathways for fostering development within a multi-ethnic nation like Nigeria. The 

discussion begins by analyzing the conceptual meanings of key terms to lay a foundation for 

the discourse. 

 

ETHNIC GROUP 

Scholars have long attempted to define the concept of "Ethnic", yet no universally accepted 

definition exists. Various approaches to the term have been considered over time. Broadly, an 

Ethnic group is understood as a social organization bonded by shared interests, values, and 

beliefs. It refers to a group of individuals with common characteristics, such as religion, 

language, or culture, that create a sense of unity. Specifically, culture—comprising shared 

values, beliefs, practices, norms, customs, traditions, rituals, and lifestyles—is central to the 

identity of an ethnic group, as it binds members together, often alongside a shared language. 

Cohen (1974) defines an ethnic group as an informal interest group whose members distinguish 

themselves from others within a society by shared features such as kinship, religion, and 

linguistic ties. Nnoli (1978) describes an ethnic group as a social formation defined by the 

communal nature of its boundaries, emphasizing language as a crucial variable in ethnic 

identity. According to Nnoli, an ethnic group is characterized by members who identify with 

one another through shared ancestry, language, and culture, and who are similarly recognized 

by outsiders. This shared identity is further defined by the group’s ascription to a common 

bloodline or ancestry—whether real or imagined. Regardless of a group’s numerical size or 

geographical scope, the unifying psychological awareness of a shared origin fosters solidarity 

and a sense of belonging among its members (Cletus, 2012, 217). 

From these definitions, it can be argued that the core elements of ethnicity include shared 

language, geographical proximity, culture, religion, traditions, ancestry, and morality. These 

shared factors bind members of an ethnic group together and shape their identity. However, 

this strong internal cohesion often leads to a sense of exclusivity, where members regard others 

as outsiders. This perception can, in turn, foster discrimination and tension due to the distinct 

values and characteristics that unify the group. This has happened in Nigeria and many other 

countries in Africa. 

 

CHAUVINISM 

Chauvinism is generally defined as the strong and unreasonable belief that one’s own country 

or race or even sex is superior to all others. According to the Cambridge Dictionary, it refers 

to an extreme form of nationalism or prejudice, often characterized by an unyielding loyalty to 

one’s own group, whether based on nationality, ethnicity, or race. The Longman Dictionary 

describes it as an unreasoning belief in the superiority of one's race or country over others, 

while Merriam-Webster extends the definition to include undue partiality or attachment to 

one’s group or place. Chauvinism, at its core, serves as an ego-enhancer—establishing other 



   Emmanuel Adetokunbo..                  Ethnic chauvinism and development in nigeria: an appraisal… 

               

                                                

 

138 
 

groups as "inferior" and thereby positioning one’s own group as "superior" by default (Ramet, 

1994, 122). Chauvinism was the result of experiences that had severed the national 

consciousness from the national soil, alienating nationalism from the physical reality of the 

country and detaching pride and loyalty from tangible achievements represented in both the 

material and spiritual aspects of the nation. Instead, chauvinism redirected this sense of identity 

toward an abstract notion of the "soul," a quality believed to be universally shared by all 

members of the same people through the mere accident of birth (Arendt, 1945, 459). 

At its core, chauvinism functions as a psychological mechanism for inflating the ego—defining 

other groups as "inferior" and, in doing so, positioning one’s own group as "superior" by 

default. This constructed sense of superiority draws strength from the imagined uniqueness of 

the groups identity, further alienating it from the shared human experience. 

Ethnic chauvinism specifically refers to this mindset within the context of ethnicity, where 

individuals prioritize the interests of their ethnic group above the well-being of others, often 

leading to division and conflict. Such chauvinism tends to foster an exclusivist mentality that 

diminishes the value of other groups, creating barriers to national cohesion and progress. 

Ethnic chauvinism is a product of an exaggerated or unreasonable belief in the supremacy of 

one’s own ethnic group, which manifests in the desire for national dominance. It often fosters 

exclusion, where ethnic identities are rigidly defined, and there is little tolerance for diversity 

within the nation. While patriotism in its purest form is meant to unify, the extreme version of 

patriotism can be twisted into chauvinism, as loyalty becomes an absolute, unquestioning force. 

This shift turns a positive sense of belonging into a harmful tool for exclusion. 

Patriotism, on the other hand, is the love of one’s country, identification with it, and a special 

concern for its well-being and that of its people. Unlike chauvinism, patriotism seeks to 

promote unity, fostering a shared sense of belonging that transcends ethnic, regional, or 

religious divides. However, patriotism exists on a spectrum, ranging from extreme to moderate 

forms. Extreme patriotism, often associated with strong or robust patriotism, can mirror the 

excesses of chauvinism. It is characterized by an unconditional loyalty to one's country, 

summed up by the phrase, "My country, right or wrong." In this sense, extreme patriotism can 

lead to pure nationalisman unquestioning defense of one’s country, regardless of the ethical 

implications of its actions. Igor Primoratz argues that this form of patriotism, framed in terms 

of absolute loyalty, can be dangerously close to chauvinism, where national pride veils critical 

thought and reflection. 

In contrast, moderate patriotism is characterized by a more nuanced attachment to one's 

country. Alasdair MacIntyre suggests that patriotism can be a moral force when it operates 

within constraints—both procedural and object-related—that ensure legitimacy and prevent 

harm. This more balanced form of patriotism recognizes the imperfections within one’s nation 

and supports its progress through constructive engagement and critical reflection. 

In the context of ethnic chauvinism, a healthy form of patriotism can be a powerful antidote. 

Where ethnic chauvinism divides, patriotism can unite. A patriotic love to the nation that 

acknowledges and embraces its diverse ethnic and cultural groups fosters social cohesion and 

national identity, which is critical for development. Unlike ethnic chauvinism, which prioritizes 

the interests of one group over others, patriotism for a unified nation emphasizes collective 

well-being and mutual respect across different groups. 



                                                                     Aquino Journal of Philosophy, Vol 5 Issue 1, April 2025. 

                 ISSN: 2786-9792 

 

139 
 

Patriotism, when practiced in moderation, offers a vision of the nation where all citizens, 

regardless of their ethnic background, are valued equally. It encourages a sense of belonging 

that transcends ethnic boundaries, inviting individuals to identify with their country as a whole 

rather than through the narrow lens of ethnicity. In this sense, patriotism acts as a corrective 

force, counterbalancing the negative impact of ethnic chauvinism by emphasizing shared 

values, national progress, and the importance of inclusion in building a better future for all 

citizens. 

 

ETHNIC CONFLICT 

Conflict refers to a clash or disagreement, often violent, between two or more opposing groups 

or individuals. Ethnic conflict arises when individuals or groups seek to defend their ethnic 

identity, often fueled by unwarranted bias and excessive devotion to one’s own group. Such 

devotion becomes a potential source of inter-ethnic violence and strife. Ethnic conflict can be 

defined as a struggle between two or more ethnic groups, often characterized by battles over 

subordination, rebellion, or hegemony (Friday, 2014). While the root causes may be political, 

social, economic, or religious, participants typically fight to assert their ethnic group's position 

within society. The origins of ethnic conflict, whether internal (societal) or external (physical), 

can be traced to historical rivalries and structural inequalities (Ray, 2012, 13). Ethnic conflict 

may manifest in two primary forms: violent and non-violent. 

Violent ethnic conflict involves actions fueled by ethnic hatred and animosity such as the case 

with the Hutus and Tutsis of Rwanda. Such conflicts are often driven by social and political 

inequalities and result in direct assaults. In these cases, individuals or groups take up arms to 

attack and kill members of opposing ethnic groups. Violent ethnic conflicts are particularly 

destructive, leading to significant loss of life, injuries, and widespread devastation. Their peril 

lies in their ability to inflict long-term harm on both human lives and societal structures. 

On the other hand, non-violent ethnic conflict is less destructive and focuses on achieving 

significant political or cultural objectives based on ethnicity. Unlike violent conflict, non-

violent ethnic clashes do not involve direct physical attacks or weaponized aggression. These 

conflicts often stem from political rivalries, such as leaders vying for power based on ethnic 

affiliations. While such conflicts may escalate tensions, they generally result in fewer casualties 

and less infrastructural damage compared to violent ethnic conflicts. 

Both forms of ethnic conflict, violent and non-violent, underscore the complex interplay of 

social, political, and cultural factors that drive group tensions. Understanding these dynamics 

is essential for mitigating ethnic conflict and fostering peaceful coexistence among diverse 

communities 

 

DEVELOPMENT 

Development refers to a comprehensive process aimed at improving the overall quality of life 

for individuals and communities. It goes beyond mere economic growth to include equitable 

access to essential services such as healthcare, education, housing, and other basic needs. True 

development is measured by its ability to reduce poverty, unemployment, and inequality while 

promoting social and economic advancement. 



   Emmanuel Adetokunbo..                  Ethnic chauvinism and development in nigeria: an appraisal… 

               

                                                

 

140 
 

It encompasses the reorganization and improvement of an entire societal and economic system. 

This process is multidimensional, affecting economic, political, social, cultural, and even 

religious aspects of life. It seeks to enhance the capacity of individuals and communities to 

utilize resources effectively, ensuring better living standards. Additionally, development is a 

continuous effort to uplift the material, social, and psychological conditions of people, fostering 

progress and well-being for all members of society. 

Alex Gboyega (2023, 6-7) views development as an idea encompassing all efforts to improve 

human existence in every aspect. It implies enhancing the material well-being of all citizens, 

not just the wealthy and powerful, in a sustainable manner that ensures today’s consumption 

does not jeopardize future generations. Furthermore, it seeks to reduce poverty and inequality, 

enhance physical security and livelihoods, and expand life opportunities. Naomi (1995), on her 

part, believes that development is usually taken to involve not only economic growth, but also 

some notion of equitable distribution, provision of health care, education, housing and other 

essential services all with a view to improving the individual and collective quality of life. 

From the definitions above, it is evident that development encompasses the administrative, 

economic, social, and cultural activities of human life. It can be concluded that development 

occurs when these activities lead to the betterment of individuals and society, improving the 

conditions of human existence in all dimensions. 

 

INFLUENCE OF ETHNIC CHAUVINISM IN NIGERIA 

Nigeria gained prominence in 1914 following the amalgamation of its three regions: the West, 

North, and East. The country is culturally heterogeneous, with approximately 250 ethnic 

groups, including nearly 200 in the Middle Belt alone. Each ethnic group occupies a distinct 

territorial area considered its homeland. Four ethnic groups—the Hausa and Fulani in the 

North, the Igbo in the East, and the Yoruba in the West—constitute nearly half of Nigeria's 

total population. Historically, these groups dominated the three regions of the Federation of 

Nigeria, with the majorities occupying central positions of political and economic power, while 

minorities were relegated to the peripheries. 

Despite being endowed with vast human and material resources; Nigeria’s development has 

been significantly hindered by ethnic divisions. These divisions have resulted in inequitable 

state policies, pervasive corruption, social decay, and widespread poverty. Ethnic politics, in 

particular, has posed a major obstacle to Nigeria's social, economic, and political progress. 

Before independence, the quest for self-rule was overshadowed by the struggle for ethnic 

dominance (Kalejaiye & Alliyu, 2023). Political parties during this period were often formed 

along ethnic lines, transitioning from cultural organizations into political entities. For instance, 

the Northern People’s Congress (NPC), established in 1951, evolved from the cultural group 

Jam’iyyarMutanenArewa and was dominated by the Hausa/Fulani under leaders such as Sir 

Ahmadu Bello and Sir Abubakar Tafawa Balewa. Similarly, the Action Group (AG), the 

political wing of the Yoruba cultural organization Egbe Omo Oduduwa, was formed in the 

same year under the leadership of Obafemi Awolowo. The National Council of Nigeria and the 

Cameroons (NCNC), formed in 1944, was initially regarded as a national party but later 

became associated with the Igbo-dominated Eastern region under the leadership of Nnamdi 

Azikiwe. 



                                                                     Aquino Journal of Philosophy, Vol 5 Issue 1, April 2025. 

                 ISSN: 2786-9792 

 

141 
 

Ethnic tensions have historically fueled major political crises in Nigeria. The Kano riots of 

1953 and the census crisis of 1962/63 are notable examples. The Kano riots were sparked by a 

motion for self-government, proposed by Anthony Enahoro of the Action Group, which sought 

independence from Britain by 1956. Northern members of parliament opposed the motion, 

viewing it as an attack on their unpreparedness for independence. This led to a series of riots 

when Action Group representatives visited Kaduna in May 1953. Similarly, the 1962/63 census 

crisis arose when the Eastern and Mid-Western regions rejected the census results, claiming 

they were inflated and marred by irregularities. 

Since independence, ethnic politics has exacerbated corruption and stifled national unity. 

Ethnic loyalty often shields corrupt elites from accountability, as citizens hesitate to expose 

wrongdoing by members of their ethnic group. According to Jacob (2012), "official corruption 

is at its peak due to ethnic politics and social conflicts," with ethnic affiliations frequently 

obstructing justice. This "ethno-corruption" undermines economic development, deters foreign 

investment, and perpetuates poverty, unemployment, and poor infrastructure. Former President 

Ibrahim Babangida (2002) noted that social conflicts rooted in ethnic and religious divisions 

pose significant threats to security, investments, and overall economic confidence. 

Ethnic chauvinism has further eroded trust among Nigeria’s diverse groups, fostering division 

and weakening the spirit of nationalism. As Umezinwa (2012) argued in his paper Ethnicity 

and Nigeria’s Underdevelopment, ethnic rivalry has hindered the emergence of competent, 

selfless leaders capable of advancing national development. Elections are often decided based 

on candidates’ ethnic affiliations rather than merit, resulting in a political system dominated by 

individuals who prioritize ethnic interests over national progress. 

This ethnically charged environment has led to favoritism in public service, particularly in 

regions like the North, where ethnic bias influences hiring practices and resource allocation. 

For instance, in some cases, individuals who do not speak the Hausa language face 

discrimination in public offices. Such practices perpetuate inequality and reinforce the 

divisions that hinder Nigeria’s development. For Nigeria to achieve meaningful progress, it 

must prioritize unity, foster trust among its diverse ethnic groups, and cultivate a national 

identity that transcends ethnic allegiances. Only then can the nation overcome the challenges 

posed by ethnic chauvinism and unlock its full developmental potential. 

RECOMMENDATIONS 

1. For political, economic, and social development to thrive, certain prerequisites must be 

met. These include territorial integration, national security, the protection of citizens’ 

rights and freedoms, popular franchise, and the ability of citizens to elect leaders 

through free and fair elections. Furthermore, the orderly transfer of power is essential, 

as is appointing individuals to government positions based on merit rather than cultural 

or ethnic affiliations. Merit-based appointments eliminate bias and enhance efficiency 

in governance. 

2. In Nigeria, the absence of territorial integration and national security hampers 

development. Citizens are the nation’s greatest asset, and their well-being is the 

foundation for progress. Corruption remains one of the primary obstacles to Nigeria’s 

development, permeating every aspect of the state. To curb corruption, Nigeria must 

enforce strict measures to make theft impossible and ensure that prosecutions are swift 

and certain. The judiciary must embrace a 21st-century approach to justice, particularly 



   Emmanuel Adetokunbo..                  Ethnic chauvinism and development in nigeria: an appraisal… 

               

                                                

 

142 
 

in cases threatening national security. A developed nation must prioritize advancements 

in its political, economic, and social systems. 

3. Nigeria operates a presidential system of government within a federal framework, 

where power is decentralized among federal, state, and local tiers of government. 

However, a reevaluation of these systems is necessary for meaningful development. 

The multi-party system currently in place is plagued by a lack of ideology, with parties 

often prioritizing the interests of the elite rather than the general populace. Adopting a 

two-party system, where parties are built on clear ideologies and principles, could 

enhance political development. Additionally, rotating political power among ethnic 

groups at the federal level could foster unity and healthy competition, ensuring all 

groups have a sense of belonging. This approach could reduce political crises and 

promote national cohesion. 

4. Key principles such as the rule of law, separation of powers, and checks and balances 

must be upheld in Nigeria's governance framework. The rule of law emphasizes the 

supremacy of the law over all individuals, ensuring equality and the protection of 

individual rights. Separation of powers divides responsibilities among the executive, 

legislative, and judicial branches, preventing the abuse of power. Checks and balances 

further ensure accountability and fair play, preventing any arm of government from 

overstepping its boundaries. 

5. A national conference could play a pivotal role in addressing Nigeria’s challenges. For 

example, the 2014 National Conference brought representatives from various regions 

to discuss pressing national issues and propose solutions. Such platforms foster unity 

and coordination among members of the federation. Additionally, reducing the salaries 

and allowances of public officeholders could redirect funds toward national 

development. Free and fair elections, devoid of vote-buying and malpractice, are 

essential for fostering trust in the democratic process. 

6. Economic development in Nigeria requires adopting a clear ideology, such as a mixed 

economy. This system combines elements of capitalism and socialism, allowing private 

individuals and the state to share responsibility for production, distribution, and 

exchange. Capitalism fosters rapid development by encouraging innovation and private 

enterprise, while socialism ensures equitable wealth distribution. This dual approach 

could address Nigeria's economic challenges and drive sustainable growth. 

 

CONCLUSION 

This paper has analyzed the challenges to Nigeria's development, emphasizing the role of 

ethnicity in shaping the political system. The prioritization of ethnic interests over national 

interests has hindered progress. To achieve meaningful development, Nigeria must embrace 

unity in diversity, accountability, and transparency. Leaders must be visionary, selfless, 

patriotic, and free of ethnic bias. Proper education and a commitment to national unity should 

be the government’s focus. While it must be admitted that these shortcomings will not be easy 

to overcome, there is the urgent need to make serious efforts to start addressing them now if 

our potentials are to be realized. Addressing these challenges is essential for fostering a more 

developed and harmonious Nigeria. 

 

 



                                                                     Aquino Journal of Philosophy, Vol 5 Issue 1, April 2025. 

                 ISSN: 2786-9792 

 

143 
 

REFERENCES 

Adeniji, A. S., & Ofiwe M. E. (2015). The Impact Of Ethnicity On Nigeria’s Political 

Development: An Assessment, 1999-2011. Journal Of Applied Science VOL 2 ISSUE 12 

Paper 6,  71- 99. 

Alexander, M. (1993). Geographic Perspectives on Ethnic Conflict. A Conference Report, 

US. 

Arendt, H. (1945). Imperialism, Nationalism, Chauvinism. The Review of Politics 7(4), 441-

463. 

Benyin, A. A., & Ugochukwu D. A. (2015). Development and Its Challenges in Nigeria: A 

Theoretical Discourse. Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences Vol 6 No 6 S2, 275-281. 

Cletus, U. (2012). Ethnicity and Nigeria's Underdevelopment . Ogirisi: a new journal of 

African studies vol 9, 215-229. 

Fagbadebo, O. (2007). Corruption, Governance and Political Instability in Nigeria. African 

Journal of Political Science and International Relations Vol. 1, 28-37. 

Friday, N. N. (2014). Ethnic Politics In Africa: The Nigerian Example. 5th European 

Conference on African Studies African Dynamics in a Multipolar World Centro de Estudos 

Internacionais do Instituto Universitário de Lisboa (ISCTE-IUL), pp.1501-1513. 

Gboyega, A. (2003). Democracy and Development: The Imperative of Local Government. 

Ibadan: An Inaugural Lecture, University of Ibadan. 

https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/chauvinism. (2024, December 12). 

Retrieved Jan Accessed 12, 2020 

https://www.foresightfordevelopment.org/featured/ethnicity-tribalism. (n.d.). Retrieved Jan 

Accessed 27, 2020 

Josué Antonio Nescolarde-Selva, José-Luis Usó-Doménech, & Hugh Gash. (2017). What Are 

Ideological Systems? Systems, 5(1), 21, 1-17. 

Kalejaiye, P. O., & Alliyu N. (2013). Ethnic Politics And Social Conflicts: Factors In 

Nigeria’s.The Journal of International Social Research Volume: 6 Issue: 27, pp.251- 262. 

MacIntyre, A. (1984). The Claims of After Virtue. Analyse & Kritik 6 (1), 3-7. 

Naomi, O. (1995). Towards an Integrated View of Human Rights. Hunger Teach Net, 6(3). 

Nathanson, S. (1993). Patriotism, Morality, and Peace. Maryland: Rowman & Littlefield 

Publishers. 

Nnoli, O. (1978). Ethnic Politics in Nigeria. Enugu: Fourth Dimension Publishing Co. Ltd. 

Olav, S. (1970). An Introduction to the Politics,Economy and Social Setting of Modern 

Nigeria. Uppsala: Söderström&Finn. 

Oluwadele, L. B., Adediran, A., & Olaogun, S. M. (2023). Ethnic and cultural diversity in 

Nigeria: A panacea for national development or decapitation? Integrity Journal of Arts and 

Humanities Volume 4(4), 62-70. 

Oyejide, F. O. (2016). Ethnicity As A Tool For Nation-Building In Nigeria.Journal of Basic 

and Applied Research 19(3), pp.175-193. 



   Emmanuel Adetokunbo..                  Ethnic chauvinism and development in nigeria: an appraisal… 

               

                                                

 

144 
 

Primoratz, I. (2009). Patriotism and the value of citizenship. Acta Analytica 24 (1), 63-67. 

Ramet, S. P. (1994). Social Currents in Eastern Europe: The Sources and Consequences of 

the Great Transformation. Durham, N. C.: Duke University Press. 

Ray, I. J. (2012). A Historical Survey of Ethnic Conflict in Nigeria. Asian Social Science Vol. 

8, No. 4, pp. 13-29. 

Sardo, M. (2017). The anatomy of patriotism. Anthropological Notebooks 23 (1), pp43-55. 

Tolu, L., & Abe, O. (2011). National development in Nigeria: Issues, challenges and 

prospects ( Review). Journal of Public Administration and Policy Research Vol. 3(9), pp. 

237-241. 

Uwaifo, S. O. (2016). Ethnicity and Development of Political Parties in Nigeria. Journal of 

Poverty, Investment and Development Vol.28 , pp.1-9. 

worldometers. (2025, January 8). Retrieved from https://www.worldometers.info/world-

population/nigeria-population/ 

 


